Perchloraven

The toxic salt deserts of Mars are not home to many animals, most of them being small-to-microscopic extremophiles. But some creatures have learned to exploit the hostile landscape. In the northern hemisphere we have already encountered the caraxor, a flying pedicambulate which rules alone over the perchlorate wastes there.

In the wastes which pepper the highlands and tundra of the southern hemisphere can be found an organism roughly equivalent in ecology but highly aberrant in every other aspect, appearing like the Martian parody of a flamingo. The perchloraven is a member of the rare and elusive Monopoda, which are secondarily flightless ballousaurs. For whatever reason, their wings (former hindlegs) have atrophied. In some of the more archaic members they can still be used for gliding, whereas in more derived members like the perchloraven they can only be used anymore for social displays and balancing. This leaves only their single front-leg (formerly an arm) as an organ for locomotion.

This anatomy is obviously quite awkward and fragile, which makes it perhaps no wonder why these organisms are rare and only found in environments that lack competition or predators. The perchlorate deserts are obviously just such a place. Surrounded by kilometres of toxic plains and dust, the thermally heated brine pools which the perchloraven inhabits are isolated from the rest of Mars almost perfectly. Here it can awkwardly hop and shuffle around on its leg without fearing any danger.

Much like the caraxor, it can survive here thanks to a high resistance to saltwater and even perchlorate itself, having six nephridia (equivalent to kidneys) instead of the standard four that most other deltadactylians have, a genuine atavism it shares with more archaic onychognaths. Another surprising adaptation revealed by dissection is that the dark dots which colour its back and wings are actually caused by unicellular proteroareozoans which endosymbiotically live inside the organism’s skin. Highly infused with melanin, these microbes show signs of being radiotrophic, much like the fungi discovered in Chernobyl, being able to absorb and use cosmic rays and perhaps even ultraviolet radiation in order to metabolize. If this symbiosis simply exists to protect the perchloraven from the radiation it experiences at higher elevations or if it also gains energy from this relationship is not known. Some of these organisms can be found freely swimming inside the brine pools, so it is likely that the animal acquires them though its diet.

The perchloraven’s main method of feeding, filtering the briny water for small organisms, is evident by the long baleen-like bristles which grow out of its lower jaw, like the teeth of the bizarre pterosaur Pterodaustro. What the headcrest and attached skinflap are for is less obvious, though it likely serves as some form of social display. Perchloravens mate in pairs and give birth to live young raised in rocky nests. An advantage they have over their aerial cousins is that the loss of flight has made the pelvis much less rigid and narrow, allowing the chicks to be born much better developed. Usually they are able to stand, hop and feed by themselves a day or so after birth.

Why exactly the perchloraven is completely naked instead of having feather-scales like its relatives is a good question. Mainly living in thermally heated pools, it seems like there was no need anymore for insolation, allowing the organism to revert back to a more ectothermic metabolism in order to save energy.

On a zoogeographical note, it is also interesting that there is such a north-south divide between perchloraven and caraxor habitats. It has been proposed that the shrubland habitats which line the equator may prevent either organism from crossing into the other hemisphere, as they cannot feed in these zones and would also have to face predators which they have no natural defence against (Watzlawick 2114). What speaks against this is of course the fact that the caraxor can fly.

References:

• Watzlawick, Paul: Wide-scale niche partitioning across Mars, in: Journal of Xenobiology, 189, 2114, p. 310 – 377.

Why you should watch Robinson Crusoe on Mars

If one had to accurately describe Robinson Crusoe on Mars, one would not have to look farther than the movie’s title, as it is pretty much exactly what it says. But if one had to describe it in another way to modern audiences, it is basically The Martian by Andy Weir, but released eight years before Weir was even born. Coming out in 1964, the movie tells the story of an astronaut stranded (nearly) alone on Mars and trying to fight for survival. Being made before the likes of 2001: A Space Odyssey or Planet of the Apes, one would expect this to be a typical science fiction movie of the era, with all the campiness that comes with it, from bad acting and lousy effects to concepts and creatures that are more fantastical than they are scientific. But, while there are traces of camp here and there, Robinson Crusoe on Mars, made by Byron Haskin, best known for 1953’s The War of the Worlds, decidedly stands out, as it is a genuine attempt at classic science fiction and was made at a crossroads between our old and new understanding of Mars. As such, it is of historic importance, as a real attempt was made to capture the then current vision of the surface conditions of the red planet. Don’t believe me? They even went as far as putting the label “This film is scientifically authentic” on the poster. Is that not hilariously fantastic? More movies should have that. What if we started putting labels of scientific accuracy on sci-fi media, complete with a rating system?

The Story

The movie begins with a manned mission in the orbit of Mars. On board are the two astronauts, Christopher Draper, played by Paul Mantee, and Dan McReady, played by Adam West (yes, THE Adam West. Batman is in this movie, deal with it), as well as their pet companion, a spider monkey named Mona (female in the movie, but according to IMDb played by a male monkey, who had to wear fur pants to hide that fact). As they orbit, they come too close into contact with a meteoroid and have to abandon the main ship by separately entering the escape pods to land on the planet.

There, Draper crash-lands alone, completely wrecking his vessel but surviving. The surface of Mars is arid, cold, no vegetation or life in sight. Though the air pressure is still high enough and there are low amounts of oxygen, so that Draper can take off his helmet and survive for about thirteen minutes before he has to return to breathing with his air tanks. This is obviously where the movie differs from modern knowledge, but it was very accurate to how surface conditions were envisioned in the early 60s. Earth-based telescopes and spectroscopy had already advanced enough by then to determine that Mars was not hospitable enough to support the civilizations and fantastic fauna of older fiction, but without direct measurements taken, it was still thought that the air pressure was high enough (in part because the dust veil around the planet gave astronomers the impression of a thicker atmosphere), perhaps similar to that around high mountaintops on Earth, that simple life was possible on the surface and that human astronauts might only need breathing masks. That Draper can breathe for a few minutes without tanks also seems plausible with then current knowledge, as seasonally changing colour-patches on the surface (not seen in the movie, but referenced at one point) were interpreted as vegetation and where there are plants there might also be a bit of oxygen. Only a year after this movie was released would Mariner-4 fly by Mars and show that even this scenario was too optimistic. 

After Draper salvages what he can, he makes his way across the lonely dunes and hills of Mars, finding shelter in a cave. Most of the movie was shot in Death Valley, but smartly, the blue sky of Earth and other background shots were replaced with matte paintings by Albert Whitlock (who would later also work on Star Trek and Carpenter’s The Thing), which give the movie an appropriate and rather beautiful alien atmosphere. Some shots even look remarkably similar to real life photos that would later be returned by the Mars rovers. The following days, as he uses up his air supply, Draper tries to find his friend McReady again, but is devastated to see that he has not only also crashed but died in the process. Only Mona the monkey survived. Together they go back to Draper’s cave, where he knows that the dwindling air supply spells doom. Nearly suffocating to death, he then finds out by accident that the strange yellow rocks he as been finding across the Martian surface are flammable and, when burned, actually release oxygen for him to breathe, saving his life. While this was obviously a convenient invention by the movie, there ironically is now some basis in reality to this. Today we know that the Martian sands are laden with perchlorate salts. Though toxic to humans and white in colour, with the right chemical reaction these can actually produce free oxygen. Various microorganisms on Earth, such as bacteria of the phylum Pseudomonadota, make use of this reaction, which obviously inspired my own work here on this site.

From here on out the movie follows the classic robinsonade-style story, just in its Martian setting. Having found a temporary solution to his oxygen-problem, as well as fuel for a nightly fire to keep themselves warm, Draper and Mona now have to contend with the lack of water and food, as supplies are quickly running out. In a cave they find a subterranean aquifer, in whose waters grow alien plants, looking like a mix between reeds and sausages. These the two are able to cook and eat. Using the newly-found resources, Draper builds himself a little farm and with the remaining scrap metal constructs various conveniences and contraptions to turn his shelter into a home, morphing from astronaut back into caveman in the process. 

But the worries do not end. While the movie does give its characters occasional breaks from the distressing situation they have found themselves in, it does nonetheless take itself very seriously. The monkey is surprisingly almost never used for comedic relief, but acts more as both a consolation as well as frustration for Draper. Though she gives him someone to care for, he cannot hold a conversation with her, which he obviously laments as the many months of isolation wear on. Heartbreaking, and quite well-acted by Mantee, is also a dream sequence where Draper sees his friend McReady alive again, but unable to talk to him, taunting his loneliness and driving him to near madness. Here the movie is very close again to the realities of space travel, as the consequences of the long periods of isolation that come with it will inevitably have negative effects on the human mind. This is a problem any modern prospect of a manned Mars mission will continue to struggle with. 

From here on out we go into spoilery territory (so read at your own caution), but you could have probably already guessed by the poster that Draper is not as alone on Mars as he had thought. While there are no native Martians and the movie even goes out of its way to explain the infamous canals as natural volcanic features, Draper eventually comes across a mining colony set up by aliens from another star system. Said aliens are quite evil and use slaves for labour. While spying on them, Draper bumps into one of the slaves, whom he calls Friday, in direct reference to the equivalent character from the Daniel Defoe novel. Friday is played by Victor Lundin, who would later go on to play the first onscreen Klingon in Star Trek, and looks exactly like a human. The alien language he speaks apparently also consists of Mayan words, which is perhaps some stealth reference to ancient astronaut hypotheses. In my personal head-canon, Friday is not an alien, but instead a descendant of ancient Mayans who were abducted and enslaved by aliens in antiquity. His relationship with Draper, as they flee together and hide at his shelter, is an uneasy one at first, but they get to know each other and become friends, with Draper attempting to teach Friday English. Eventually, however, their hideout is found by the slavers and they have to flee. What happens from thereon after I let you find out yourself.

Why you should watch it

Robinson Crusoe on Mars is many things. First, it is a quite good adaptation that perfectly captures what made the original Defoe novel appealing and also elevates its elements thanks to its higher stakes setting. Dare I say, it even improves upon it. Astronaut Christopher Draper certainly is a more likeable and relatable character than literal slave-owner/trader Robinson Crusoe. Draper’s respectful conversation with Friday about what God means to them will also likely resonate better with modern audiences than Crusoe’s blunt conversion of Friday to Christianity. Also, it is an “X in space” adaptation, which immediately makes everything better.

Secondly, it is science fiction of the best kind. It took what was known about Mars and spaceflight at the time, extrapolated it to create an interesting setting, took only few artistic liberties and put the protagonists against the thus generated odds, while also not being above having fun with its setting. While the movie was made right during the transition from old to new Mars, it also feels like a missing link between older and newer sci-fi movies. While the second half of the movie, with Draper and Friday escaping the alien slavers, still has clear shades of campy B-movies from the 50s, the first half has a serious, suspenseful, tough scientific feel that foreshadows examples of the genre that would come later, such as 2001, Star Trek or Alien. In a few ways it even already pokes fun at things that would become tropes in the future, such as when Draper theorizes that Friday communicates telepathically, to then discover that the guy can just talk and was simply acting mute at first. One could almost think that is a jab at Star Trek type aliens, if not for the fact that the original series would not come out until two years after this movie.

Thirdly, it is just all-around enjoyable to watch. The effects are decent for the time, the sets are beautifully designed, the technological props have that lovely outdated haptic look with buttons and tube-monitors (which still has lost none of its charm, as media like Fallout proves), the music is atmospheric and triumphant and the actors convey genuine emotion. I just said in the previous paragraph that the second half of the movie is reminiscent of earlier B-movies, but this does not at all mean that it brings the quality or seriousness of the movie down, for the simple reason that the blooming friendship between Draper and Friday is a heartfelt one that the viewer will love to watch and root for, as the two strangers struggle together for survival against all odds. “Heartfelt” I feel is the best way to describe this movie in general.

In conclusion, this is exactly the kind of movie that makes young, impressionable children want to be astronauts, just as Karel Zeman’s Journey to the Beginning of Time made kids in the 50s want to be paleontologists. It portrays space as a dangerous place, but one that begs to be explored and is filled with opportunities for adventure. It combines the best elements of science fiction with those of a robinsonade: Man, faced against strange new lands, creatures and technologies, survives, thrives and conquers through his sheer ingenuity, curiosity and determination. Lastly, it shows that even faced with the increasingly harsher reality of Mars, great stories can still be told on the red planet. This is directly proven by Ridley Scott’s 2015 adaptation of The Martian, which could be viewed as a modern up-to-date remake of Robinson Crusoe on Mars and was a resounding financial success that won several awards. In this light, let us pay some tribute to the movie that did it first and paved the way for many later classics. Matt Damon also did not have a pet monkey in that movie, which immediately makes it worse.

Oh yeah, and you can also just watch the movie through the Internet Archive

If you liked this and other articles, please consider supporting me on Patreon. I am thankful for any amount, even if it is just 1$, as it will help me at dedicating more time to this blog and related projects. Patrons also gain early access to the draft-versions of these posts and other exclusive contents.

Related Posts:

• The Things which lived on Mars and in our Minds

Caraxor

The salty wastelands of the perchlorate deserts are not completely devoid of macroscopic life. The process by which the perchloareont microbes create oxygen also turns toxic perchlorate back into regular sodium chloride. While the brine oases inside these deserts are thus still extremely salty, they are far less toxic than the perchlorate flats that surround them. A few halophilic extremophiles can thus carve out a life inside the brine ponds. They largely consist of simple plant-life, various worms, and some antitrematans and pseudarticulates. The majority of which are barely visible with the naked eye. These salt-dwarves may tremble when the shadow of a caraxor glides over their home. It is the only large animal thriving in the northern wastes.

The Caraxor is a periostracan distantly related to the nothornithes. Whereas Nothornitha are bird-like bipeds, the ancestors of the Caraxor and its relatives, also known as the Pedicambulata, have gone down a different route. In the ancestral periostracans, the tail was exoskeletal, constructed of hardened tunicine rings, making it similar to the chitinous tails of crustaceans. In some of their descendants, many of these rings seem to have fused with each other into elongated, solid elements, until they formed a third appendage comparable to the hindlegs of some insects. The evolution of a third leg has given the older limbs of these tripods more freedom than in the bennus, allowing them to adapt to more specialized uses. Evidently, some took to flying.

With its bat-like wings, the Caraxor soars through the deserts in search of brine pools. In these, the aerial tripod wades and feeds much like an Andean flamingo. Pedicambulates have a much higher tendency towards polydonty than their nothornithe cousins, meaning that their scolecophores can bear multiple tooth-shafts. The four scolecophores of its jaw thus can thus form comb-like tight slits. With this derived jaw apparatus, it sifts the brine for small organisms, of which it is the only predator. Strong glands underneath the armpits help with excreting much of the salt, allowing it also to drink the brine. During flight and feeding, a dense pelt of white fur protects it from the harsh solar rays and the cold desert nights. Possibly, the Caraxor also has some form of tolerance to the toxic effect of perchlorates, perhaps through endosymbiosis with the same organisms that make the desert liveable.

Caraxors do not sleep or nest beside the brine pools in which they feed. Instead, they fly out towards rocky outcrops in the middle of the perchlorate wastes, where they can rest and hatch their eggs in safety above the toxic ground. The many remains of dead animals along the desert outskirts attest to the success of this strategy. Any would-be predator venturing here to feed on the Caraxor or its eggs is likely to die beforehand from the aridity and especially the toxicity.

Thus, the caraxors rule alone over the white wastes, their only company being the dry, bleached bones of fools. But to be a king in the desolation is still better than to be a pawn in death. It is a largely peaceful life, with their only enemies being disease or themselves.

Perchlorate Deserts

There are principally three sources of oxygen on Mars. The most obvious one is oxygenic photosynthesis, performed by fractarians, some spongisporians and various microorganisms. This source is limited, as the high aridity on Mars prevents the growth of much vegetation and during the exceedingly long winters, some of the flora enter long phases of dormancy in which photosynthesis may be completely halted.

The second source is photolysis. The lack of a strong magnetosphere allows the solar rays to more easily penetrate the thin Martian air, in the process breaking up the molecules inside water vapor into oxygen and hydrogen. In the past, this process may have significantly contributed to the oxygenation of the atmosphere (Sivgin 2345), but the loss of much atmospheric mass and the extreme aridity of the planet have consequently made this a minor factor.

The third source comes from an unlikely location. In some regions on Mars, both in the southern and northern hemisphere, a special type of salt flat desert has formed. Under intense UV-radiation, sodium chlorides, left behind by an ocean that has long since evaporated, react with silicate minerals in the soil and form vast plains of perchlorate salts. Perchlorates occur naturally on Earth only in places like the Atacama Desert or Death Valley and are otherwise mainly produced and used in rocket- and pyrotechnics industries. They are highly toxic to almost all life as we know it, and cause thyroid and lung damage, as well as anemia in humans. The perchlorate deserts of Mars are possibly the most lifeless places on a planet that is already pretty dead. This is despite the perchlorate deserts close to the polar regions also happening to be some of the wetter parts of the Martian surface, as perchlorate acts as an excellent antifreeze. Small streams and pools, sometimes even oases of brine lakes are sprinkled throughout these deserts, but they are so toxic that no lifeform can survive in them.

Almost no lifeform.

On Mars, as on Earth, extremophile microorganisms exist, which can actually metabolize perchlorate salts. These so-called halophilic Perchloareonta, which may dwell in almost every one of these brines, can reduce perchlorate back into harmless chloride. The amazing thing about this reaction is that it generates free oxygen as a waste product. The perchlorate deserts, as lifeless as they may seem, are downright infused with these thriving organisms and are thus one of the major oxygen-providers of the Martian surface (and potentially sub-surface). And the best thing about them is that they “operate” almost year-round.

The Horus Operations have been quick to understand the potential of these deserts. While the perchlorates have been used for a quite a while already as oxidizers for rocket-fuels, recent experiments have begun constructing bio vats in which these organisms are raised and fed in order to more easily generate oxygen for our own habitats.

References:

• Sivgin, T.K.: Life on a Dead Planet. The first 3 billion years of Evolution on Mars, Zürich 2345.